first time in history to establish secure food production independent of the weather. On the other hand, theorists had gained insights into the structure of chemical elements: The "structural formula" developed [...] that traditional bleaching powder came under massive price pressure. Electrothermics, on the other hand, used heat mainly to operate the new, extremely hot electric arc furnaces that produced steel alloys

designer of distinctive clothes in Jersey fabrics with beading in the Slavic style, of jewellery, handbags and above all of Chanel No 5 in its distinctive bottle.

rotated by water-power in horizontal machines, in which the cutters were advanced through gearing by hand wheels. In the early 1750s Verbruggen was appointed Master Founder at the state-owned foundry at The

et vous aurez bonne table et bon gîte’. (‘Your journey will be enchanting. You will be led by the hand. Your yearning for the picturesque will be satisfied and you will have good cuisine and good lodging

The life of Margarete Steiff is an heroic story of triumph over handicaps. It is also a significant part of the industrial history of Europe, of the growing tendency in the closing years of the 19th century

circular notes, the forerunners of travellers’ cheques. His first Continental Timetable & Tourists’ Handbook , listing all the main railway and passenger shipping routes in Europe, and some beyond, appeared

Kapan and Alaverdi. Economic activities increased after the country passed from Persian to Russian hands in 1828. The processing of cotton and crops for export to the tsarist empire began, wine cultivation

World War I, Italian companies began extracting petroleum; beyond that, industry consisted of a handful of factories for producing foods and processing cotton, tobacco and wood. The agricultural reform

established. But the agricultural sector was underdeveloped and great tracts of land remained in the hands of large landowners even after the formal abolition of serfdom in 1861. The rural population suffered

play any significant role in economic development: although Finland’s farmers were never serfs, the handful of owners of large, profitable estates long dominated an overwhelming majority of day labourers and

century, and 1805 saw the commissioning of the first steam engine in St. Petersburg. On the other hand, the boom in iron production trailed off in the mid-19th century, and the government attempted to

Ottoman rule in the 15th century. As in the other Balkan nations, the scarce arable land fell into the hands of Turkish landowners, who did not concern themselves with modernising agriculture. The successful

the coal mines. Also at this time, the Habsburgs developed Trieste into a major trading port. As handling volumes increased, more and more merchants settled there and established an exchange, insurance

mass-produced, industry as a whole expanded only slowly. Many high-value goods were still made by hand, as there was no shortage of labour; entrepreneurs could pay low wages, particularly as many people

the Dvigatel rail car factory in Tallinn, which also drew many workers from Russia. Tallinn’s port handled the second-largest volume of cargo in Russia, after Saint Petersburg. Prior to the First World War

few factories, which mostly produced agricultural products such as flour and sugar, were in foreign hands, as were the railways. And the agricultural sector was still using the inefficient methods of past

carpets that were subsequently marketed, and even exhibited in museums, as “traditional Bosnian” handicrafts. Some historians characterise this type of economic and intellectual exploitation as the Habsburg

"Société Vielle Montagne" had begun producing zinc in 1837. In the coal mines, which were largely in the hands of French bankers, production rose steadily, but at the same time the area - especially the "Borinage"

chemical products such as seeds, fertilisers and pesticides, they also became more dependent on a handful of large international companies with strong research capabilities. The environmental and health

other ‚old‘ industrial sector that combines industrial museums with highly advanced facilities and handicraft with state-of-the-art production methods. This European theme route was developed in cooperation