invented by John Kay in 1733. This meant that weavers no longer pulled through the warp threads by hand, but shot them through with the help of a cable. Weaving was thus accelerated to such an extent that

are unevenly distributed and because for centuries the territory of the modern country was in the hands of three different foreign powers. The fertile black-earth region to the west of the Dniepr was long [...] partitioned at the end of the 18th century, the western, “right-bank” Ukraine also fell into the hands of the czars. During this period, the land-owning Polish nobility erected the first grain mills and

few factories, which mostly produced agricultural products such as flour and sugar, were in foreign hands, as were the railways. And the agricultural sector was still using the inefficient methods of past

ON THE INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS Listen Industrialisation came late: on the one hand, because the Netherlands had only small deposits of the key raw materials coal and iron ore, and on the [...] sugar cane, coffee and indigo, which were easy to market. The indigenous population, on the other hand, suffered from hunger because this left less land for rice fields. Around the middle of the 19th century

spindles were used to imitate the hands of the spinning women. Experienced workers were necessary to operate the machines, but nonetheless productivity was much higher than by hand spinning. Since the threads [...] the weavers no longer had to push the shuttles through the warp threads over the spinning frame by hand. Nevertheless Kay’s invention remained an isolated step forward on the long road to power looms. The [...] take a bundle of extremely thin short fibres, the so-called shear wool, and pull out the fibres by hand, before stretching and twisting them. In the 1730s two inventors by the name of Lewis Paul and John

mass-produced, industry as a whole expanded only slowly. Many high-value goods were still made by hand, as there was no shortage of labour; entrepreneurs could pay low wages, particularly as many people

professionals and volunteers - people who experienced life in these industrial communities at first hand. Effective methods are needed to transfer and share knowledge with new staff and volunteers entering

century, and 1805 saw the commissioning of the first steam engine in St. Petersburg. On the other hand, the boom in iron production trailed off in the mid-19th century, and the government attempted to

keep to a strict discipline despite the fact that the majority were still working individually by hand. The decisive element which turned the whole world of work on its head was mechanisation. The factory [...] department. Division of labour raised productivity considerably. The actions of the workers, on the other hand, were increasingly reduced to a few, constantly repeated movements. As a result they gradually became [...] became alienated from the products they made. Formerly their products had been the pride of hand workers. Since expert knowledge was hardly necessary, employers now preferred to employ women and children

unthinkable: In the south, it was dominated by arch-conservative landowners; in the north, it was in the hands of countless small farmers who farmed on the edge of subsistence, and so productivity remained low [...] electrical equipment manufacturers emerged. The economy remained dominated by a small elite of a handful of families intermarried with the large landowners, but finally the process of structural change

dipped a screen the size of a sheet of paper into the vat and with it pulled out a portion of pulp. He handed the screen over to a colleague who in an elegant rolling motion dumped the dripping mat of fibres [...] in the 12th century. After the muslim emirates north of the Mediterranean Sea fell into christian hands again, european scholars, magistrates and merchants quickly discovered the advantages of the new writing [...] Nicolas Louis Robert in 1798. He constructed a long flexible screen of wire mesh which, powered by a hand crank, rotated continuously, not unlike a conveyor belt. While it rotated, pulp was shovelled onto

Ottoman rule in the 15th century. As in the other Balkan nations, the scarce arable land fell into the hands of Turkish landowners, who did not concern themselves with modernising agriculture. The successful

as mills and oil presses. After the Second World War, the country once again passed into Russian hands and the government in Moscow launched a comprehensive industrialisation campaign. However, unlike [...] for textiles and electrical appliances were built in the larger cities. Heavy industry, on the other hand, was concentrated east of the Dniester: since 1954, a hydroelectric power plant has been generating

was introduced into Belgian coalmines and, after the First World War, into the pits along the Ruhr. Hand labour underground, which had continued almost unchanged since the Middle Ages, was gradually coming

soon the business began an early form of serial production in Luxemburg. In Saarland, on the other hand, Nicolas Villeroy had developed a new process for printing complicated decorations on porcelain. At [...] steelmaking. Most of the coke for the blast furnaces in Luxemburg came from Germany. On the other hand the iron and steel produced here was sent to the Ruhrgebiet for further processing. The dependency

established. But the agricultural sector was underdeveloped and great tracts of land remained in the hands of large landowners even after the formal abolition of serfdom in 1861. The rural population suffered

guns and pistols which looked alike, but in the final assembly every single part had to be fitted by hand. Now gun makers from North America, like Samuel Colt, developed high-precision machine tools, which

"AEG". On the one hand, changes in commercial law contributed to this, which increasingly made it possible for banks and citizens to finance investments by buying shares. On the other hand, far-sighted reforms

play any significant role in economic development: although Finland’s farmers were never serfs, the handful of owners of large, profitable estates long dominated an overwhelming majority of day labourers and

version, is newly composed each year, as is the specially developed choreography, which translates the hand movements and gestures of work from the past into modern movements. Photos and videos will be taken